Country: Peru

MAAP #229: Amazon Deforestation & Fire Hotspots 2024

Posted on by Matt Finer
Base Map. Deforestation and fire hotspots across the Amazon in 2024. Data: UMD/GLAD, Amazon Conservation/MAAP.

Continuing our annual series, we present a detailed look at the major 2024 Amazon forest loss hotspots, based on the final annual data recently released by the University of Maryland and featured on Global Forest Watch. As in other reports of the series, we take this global dataset and analyze it for the Amazon specifically.

This forest loss dataset serves as a consistent source across all nine countries of the Amazon, distinguishing forest loss from fire and non-fire causes. We use the non-fire forest loss as a proxy for human-caused deforestation, although it also includes some natural loss (such as landslides and windstorms). Previous research has confirmed that nearly all Amazon fires are human-caused (MAAP #189).

With this context, we are able to present both estimated deforestation and fire hotspots across the Amazon (see Base Map and Graph 1). 

In 2024, the deforestation was the fifth highest on record (since 2002), at over 1.7 million hectares (4.3 million acres) across the Amazon. This value represents a major increase (34%) from 2023, but a decrease (12%) from the recent peak in 2022 (1.98 million hectares). The majority of the deforestation occurred in Brazil (54.7%), followed by Bolivia (27.3%), Peru (8.1%), and Colombia (4.7%) as the clear top four in 2024.

The big story in 2024, however, was the record-breaking impact of fires on primary forests, with a total of 2.8 million hectares (6.9 million acres). This total shattered the previous record of 1.7 million hectares in 2016. The vast majority (95%) of this fire impact occurred in just two countries: Brazil and Bolivia, which both set annual fire records of their own (along with Peru, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana). Overall, this fire data may be interpreted as forest degradation, in contrast to the more permanent impacts of deforestation.

In terms of spatial patterns, the Base Map indicates that most of the intense forest loss hotspots were due to fire. These fire hotspots were especially concentrated in the soy and cattle frontiers of the southeast Brazilian Amazon and southeast Bolivian Amazon. The deforestation hotspots (without major associated fires) were largely due to agriculture and gold mining across the Amazon, notably in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. See Annex 1 for the overall forest loss hotspots (without the specific fire loss data).

Previous research has revealed the tight link between deforestation and fires in the Amazon (MAAP #189). That is, many major fires are burning recently deforested areas, and sometimes escape into surrounding forests, especially with extended dry conditions.

In total, 4.5 million hectares (11.2 million acres) of primary forest were impacted by deforestation and fire combined. This total is the highest on record by far, surpassing 2016 (3.4 million hectares) by over a million hectares.

Since 2002, we estimate the deforestation of 33.7 million hectares (83.4 million acres) of primary forest, greater than the size of the state of New Mexico. An additional 10.6 million hectares (26.2 million acres) have been impacted by fires.

Below, we zoom in on the four countries with the highest deforestation (Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia), plus additional highlights from around the Amazon (Guyana, Venezuela, and Ecuador).

Amazon Primary Forest Loss, 2002-2024

Graph 1 shows the historical trend of Amazonian primary forest loss, from 2022 to present.

Graph 1. Amazon Forest Loss, 2002-24. Data: UMD/GLAD, Amazon Conservation/MAAP.

Amazon Primary Forest Loss (By Country), 2002-2024

Graph 2a shows 2024 Amazon primary forest loss for all nine countries. In Annex 2, Graph 2b removes Brazil and Bolivia to see the other countries in greater detail.

Graph 2a. Amazon primary forest loss for all nine countries. Data: UMD

Brazilian Amazon

Figure 2. Deforestation and fire hotspots in the Brazilian Amazon. Data: UMD.

In 2024, the Brazilian Amazon lost 954,126 hectares (2.4 million acres) of primary forest to deforestation. Although this total marked a 13.6% increase from 2023, it was historically relatively low (16th highest overall since 2002).

The bigger story is that fires directly impacted an additional 1.9 million hectares (4.6 million acres). This fire impact was the highest on record, surpassing the previous high of 2016 (1.6 million hectares).

All of the most intense forest loss hotspots were characterized by intense fires. Many of these hotspots were concentrated in the southeast Brazilian Amazon (Figure 2). These areas include along the major north-south road in the state of Pará (BR-163), and further to the east of this road. The hotpots also expanded south into the soy frontier of Mato Grosso state.

Fire hotspots were also located in the northern state Roraima, and along the other major road networks, especially road BR-230 (Trans-Amazonian Highway) in the states of Pará and Amazonas, and road BR-364 in the state of Acre.

Previous research has revealed that over 70% of major fires in the Brazilian Amazon are burning recently deforested areas (MAAP #189). In extended dry conditions, such as 2016 and 2024, these major fires escape into surrounding forests.

 

 

Graph 3. Deforestation and fire trends in the Brazilian Amazon. Data: UMD.

Bolivian Amazon

Figure 3. Deforestation and fire hotspots in the Bolivian Amazon. Data: UMD.

In 2024, the Bolivian Amazon lost 476,030 hectares (1.2 million acres) of primary forest to deforestation. This total was the highest on record, surpassing the previous high of 2022 (245,177 hectares).

In an even bigger shattering record, fires directly impacted an additional 779,960 hectares (1.9 million acres). This total crushed the previous record of 2023 (250,843 hectares).

Like Brazil, the most intense forest loss hotspots were characterized by intense fires. But unlike Brazil, most fires in Bolivia precede, rather than follow, deforestation.

These fires were concentrated in the soy frontier located in the southeastern department of Santa Cruz (Figure 3). We emphasize that this particular hotspot is further north than in previous years, indicating a northern expansion of soy plantations.

There was also a concentration of fire hotspots along the Beni and Pando departments’ border, and closer to the Andes Mountains in the departments of La Paz and Beni.

Deforestation hotspots (without fires) were concentrated in the soy frontier in the southeast.

 

 

 

 

Graph 4. Deforestation and fire trends in the Bolivian Amazon. Data: UMD.

Peruvian Amazon

Figure 4. Deforestation and fire hotspots in the Peruvian Amazon. Data: UMD.

In 2024, the Peruvian Amazon lost 141,781 hectares (350,341 acres) of primary forest to deforestation. This total marks the 6th highest on record since 2002.

Breaking a record, fires impacted an additional 47,574 hectares (117,554 acres). This total more than doubled the previous high of 2023 (20,042 hectares). As noted above, this fire data may be interpreted as forest degradation, in contrast to the more permanent impacts of deforestation.

Like both Brazil and Bolivia, all of the most intense forest loss hotspots were characterized by intense fires. These fires were concentrated in the central and southeast Amazon (Ucayali and Madre de Dios regions, respectively) (Figure 4).

Deforestation hotspots were concentrated in the gold mining frontier in the southern Amazon and throughout the central Amazon. The very high hotspot in central Peru corresponds to the latest deforestation by Mennonite colonies (see MAAP #222 for context).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Graph 5. Deforestation and fire trends in the Peruvian Amazon. Data: UMD

Colombian Amazon

Figure 5. Deforestation and fire hotspots in the Colombian Amazon. Data: UMD.

In 2024, the Colombian Amazon lost 81,396 hectares (201,129 acres) of primary forest to deforestation. This total marked a striking 82.5% increase from the recent low recorded in 2023. It was the 7th highest on record, continuing the trend of elevated forest loss since the FARC peace agreement in 2016 (all top seven deforestation annual totals have occurred since 2016).

Major fires were less of an issue in the Colombian Amazon, but did directly impact an additional 5,184 hectares (8th highest on record).

As described in previous reports (see MAAP #120), Figure 5 shows that there continues to be an “arc of deforestation” in the northwest Colombian Amazon (Caqueta, Meta, Putumayo and Guaviare departments). Most notably, there is a pair of very high deforestation areas surrounding Chiribiquete National Park, and high deforestation areas within Tinigua and Macarena National Parks.

This arc impacts numerous Protected Areas (particularly Tinigua and Chiribiquete National Parks) and Indigenous Reserves (particularly Yari-Yaguara II and Nukak Maku).

 

 

 

 

Graph 6. Deforestation and fire trends in the Colombian Amazon. Data: UMD.

Rest of the Amazon

Other important highlights from around the Amazon include:

Deforestation and fire hotspots in northeast Guyana. In total, Guyana lost 25,858 hectares of primary forest to deforestation, and an additional 38,314 hectares to fires, both of which shattered previous records.

Deforestation in the Venezuelan Amazon was the highest on record (32,240 hectares), and additional fire impacts were the second highest (36,471 hectares).

Deforestation in the Ecuadorian Amazon was the second highest on record (18,615 hectares), just behind 2022 (18,902 hectares). Deforestation hotspots were concentrated in the northern Amazon, areas characterized by high gold mining activity (MAAP #227, MAAP #221, MAAP #219). As in Colombia, major fires were less of an issue in the northwest Amazon overall, but did directly impact an additional 1,540 hectares (4th highest on record).

Fires were the highest on record in Suriname (7,926 ha) and French Guiana (635 ha).

Policy Implications

The dominant policy development of 2024 was the record-breaking fire season across the Amazon. These fire records were not only region-wide but also country-specific, occurring in Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana.

The 2024 records are particularly significant given that the Amazon has experienced several intense fire years over the past two decades. The most notable, and previous record-breaker, occurred in 2016, following the “Godzilla” El Niño event of 2015-16. However, the extreme drought conditions of 2023 and 2024, also associated with El Niño,  exceeded those past benchmarks, creating extreme conditions for widespread fires across the Amazon.

As a result, fire policy is now emerging as a central pillar of Amazon conservation, alongside longstanding efforts to curb deforestation. This growing prominence is directly related to climate change, both in terms of intensifying dry seasons and the projected increase in the frequency, length, and severity of El Niño events.

These policies must be centered on how to avoid fires in the first place, and then how to effectively respond to major fires once they appear.

Previous research has revealed the tight link between deforestation and fires in the Brazilian Amazon (MAAP #189). That is, many major fires are burning recently deforested areas, and sometimes escape into surrounding forests, especially with extended dry conditions. Therefore, strengthening deforestation control remains one of the most effective fire mitigation strategies in Brazil and other Amazonian countries.

There is also a strong link between deforestation and fire in the Bolivian Amazon. While deforestation often precedes fires, as in Brazil, there is also a second round of deforestation following the fires. This suggests that additional or distinct policy interventions may be necessary, such as land-use regulation, incentives for fire-free land clearing, or targeted education and enforcement in agricultural frontiers.

In both contexts, real-time fire monitoring, such as the MAAP Fire Tracker,  should be integrated into national response protocols and field-level coordination. 

Beyond fire, high rates of forest loss continue to be driven by deforestation across other parts of the Amazon. In Colombia’s arc of deforestation, we detected very high deforestation around Chiribiquete National Park, as well as high deforestation within Tinigua and Macarena National Parks. Although the national government is engaged on the issue of deforestation, these losses are closely tied to the presence and influence of armed groups in the country, which exert substantial control over land-use and deforestation dynamics (explaining shifts such as the dip in 2023 and the rise again in 2024). The major deforestation drivers in Colombia are roads, land grabbing (and associated cattle pastures), and coca cultivation.

Other high forest loss areas include gold mining fronts in northern Ecuador and southern Peru, Mennonite colonies in central Peru, the soy frontier in southeast Bolivia, and along major existing roads in Brazil. Although there is gold mining in both Venezuela and Guyana, the most intense forest loss hotspots were associated with fires surrounding agricultural areas.

It is important to note that the data presented here may differ from national data presented by governments. This difference may be due to methodology (we focus on impact on primary forests), spatial resolution (30 meters in our case), and Amazon boundaries (we employ a hybrid boundary designed for maximum inclusion of both watershed and biogeography). Due to these potential differences among sources, it is best to focus on the convergence of overall trends and patterns, and not overly focus on absolute numerical differences. 

Annex 1

Annex 1. Forest loss hotspots in relation to fire specific hotspots across the Amazon in 2024. Data: UMD/GLAD, ACA/MAAP.

 

Annex 2

Graph 2b. Amazon primary forest loss for seven countries (except Brazil and Bolivia). Data: UMD

Methodology

The analysis was based on 30-meter resolution annual forest loss data produced by the University of Maryland and also presented by Global Forest Watch.

This data was complemented with the Global Forest Loss due to fire dataset that is unique in terms of being consistent across the Amazon (in contrast to country specific estimates) and distinguishes forest loss caused directly by fire (note that virtually all Amazon fires are human-caused). The values included were ‘medium’ and ‘high’ confidence levels (code 3-4). This fire data may be interpreted as forest degradation, in contrast to the more permanent impacts of deforestation.

The remaining forest loss serves as a likely close proxy for deforestation, with the only remaining exception being natural events such as landslides, wind storms, and meandering rivers. The values used to estimate this category was ‘low’ certainty of forest loss due to fire (code 2), and forest loss due to other ‘non-fire’ drivers (code 1).

For the baseline, it was defined to establish areas with >30% tree canopy density in 2000. Importantly, we applied a filter to calculate only primary forest loss by intersecting the forest cover loss data with the additional dataset “primary humid tropical forests” as of 2001 (Turubanova et al 2018). For more details on this part of the methodology, see the Technical Blog from Global Forest Watch (Goldman and Weisse 2019).

Our geographic range for the Amazon is a hybrid designed for maximum inclusion: biogeographic boundary (as defined by RAISG) for all countries, except for Bolivia and Peru, where we use the watershed boundary, and Brazil, where we use the Legal Amazon boundary.

To identify the deforestation hotspots, we conducted a kernel density estimate. This type of analysis calculates the magnitude per unit area of a particular phenomenon, in this case, forest cover loss. We conducted this analysis using the Kernel Density tool from the Spatial Analyst Tool Box of ArcGIS. We used the following parameters:

Search Radius: 15000 layer units (meters)
Kernel Density Function: Quartic kernel function
Cell Size in the map: 50 x 50 meters (0.25 hectares)
Everything else was left to the default setting.

For the Base Map, we used the following concentration percentages: High: 3-14%; Very High: >14%. These percentages correspond to the concentration of forest loss pixels, with a pixel size of 50 x 50 meters (0.25 hectares).

Acknowledgements

We thank colleagues at Global Forest Watch (GFW), an initiative of the World Resources Institute (WRI) for early access to data.

We also thank colleagues from the following organizations for helpful comments on the report: Conservación Amazónica – ACEAA in Bolivia, Conservación Amazónica – ACCA in Peru, Fundación EcoCiencia in Ecuador, and Instituto Centro de Vida (ICV) in Brazil.

This work was supported by Norad (Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation).

Citation

Finer M, Ariñez A, Mamani N, Cohen M, Santana A (2025) Amazon Deforestation & Fire Hotspots 2024. MAAP: 229.

MAAP #226: AI to detect Amazon gold mining deforestation – 2024 update

Posted on by Matt Finer
Intro Image. Amazon Mining Watch interactive map.

As gold prices continue to increase, small-scale gold mining activity also continues to be one of the major deforestation drivers across the Amazon. 

It often targets remote areas, thus impacting carbon-rich primary forests. Moreover, in many cases, we presume that this mining is illegal based on its location within conservation areas (such as protected areas and Indigenous territories) and outside mining concessions.

Given the vastness of the Amazon, however, it has been a challenge to accurately and regularly monitor mining deforestation across all nine countries of the biome, in order to better inform related policies in a timely manner.

In a previous report (MAAP #212) we presented the initial results of the new AI-based dashboard (known as Amazon Mining Watch) designed to address the issue of gold mining and related policy implications. Amazon Mining Watch (AMW) is a partnership between Earth Genome, the Pulitzer Center’s Rainforest Investigations Network, and Amazon Conservation.

This online tool (see Intro Image) analyzes satellite imagery archives to estimate annual mining deforestation footprints across the entire Amazon, from 2018 to 2024 (Note 1). Although the data is not designed for precise area measurements,  it can be used to give timely estimates needed for management and conservation purposes.  

For example, the cumulative data can be used to estimate and visualize the overall Amazon-wide mining deforestation footprint, and the annual data can be used to identify trends and emerging new mining areas. The algorithm is based on 10-meter resolution imagery from the European Space Agency’s Sentinel-2 satellite and produces 480-meter resolution pixelated mining deforestation alerts.

The only tool of this kind to be truly regional (Amazon-wide) in coverage, AMW can also help foster regional cooperation, in particular in transfrontier areas where a lack of interoperability between official monitoring systems might hamper interventions.

The Amazon Mining Watch partnership is currently working to enhance the functionality and conservation impact of the dashboard, AMW will be a one-stop shop platform including real-time visualization of: 1) AI-based detection of mining deforestation across all nine Amazonian countries, with quarterly updates; 2) Hotspots of urgent mining cases, including river-based mining; and 3) the socio-environmental costs of illegal gold mining with the Conservation Strategy Fund (CSF) Mining Impacts Calculator.

Here, we present an update focused on the newly added 2024 data and its context within the cumulative dataset (since 2018).

MAJOR FINDINGS

In  the following sections, we highlight several major findings:

  • Gold mining is actively causing deforestation in all nine countries of the Amazon. This impact is concentrated in three major areas: southeast Brazil, the Guyana Shield, and southern Peru. In addition, mining in Ecuador is escalating.
  • The cumulative mining deforestation footprint in 2024 was over 2 million hectares (nearly 5 million acres) and has increased by over 50% in the past six years.
  • Over half of all Amazon mining deforestation occurred in Brazil, followed by Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela, and Peru.
  • While the cumulative footprint continues to grow, the rate of increase slowed in 2023 and 2024 after peaking in 2022, likely due to increased enforcement in Brazil.
  • Over one-third of the mining deforestation has occurred within protected areas and Indigenous territories, where much of it is likely illegal. We highlight the most impacted areas.
  • These results have important policy implications.
Base Map. Mining deforestation footprints, 2018-2024. Data: AMW, Amazon Conservation/MAAP.

Amazon & National Scale Patterns

The Base Map presents the gold mining footprint across the Amazon, as detected by the AMW algorithm. This data serves as our estimate of gold mining deforestation.

Yellow indicates the accumulated mining deforestation footprint for the years 2018- 2023; that is, all areas that the algorithm classified as a mining site vs other types of terrain, such as forest or agriculture. Red indicates the new mining areas detected in 2024.

Three major Amazon gold mining regions stand out: southeast Brazil (between the Tapajos, Xingu, and Tocantis Rivers), Guyana Shield (Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana), and southern Peru (Madre de Dios).  In addition, Ecuador has emerged as an important mining deforestation front.

 

 

 

 

Graph 1. Amazon mining deforestation footprint. Data: AMW

Graph 1 quantifies the spatial data detected by the AMW algorithm. 

The cumulative mining deforestation footprint in 2024 was 2.02 million hectares (4.99 million acres)

For context, the initial mining deforestation footprint was around 970,000 hectares in 2018, the first year of Amazon Mining Watch data.

Between 2019 and 2024, we estimate that the gold mining deforestation grew by 1.06 million hectares (2.61 million acres).

Thus, over half (52.3%) of the cumulative footprint has occurred in just the past six years.

Note that while the cumulative footprint continues to grow, the rate of increase slowed in 2023 and 2024 after peaking in 2022.

 

 

 

Graph 2 shows that, of the total accumulated mining (2.02 million hectares), over half has occurred in Brazil (55.3%), followed by Guyana (15.4%), Suriname (12.4%), Venezuela (7.3%), and Peru (7.0%).

Graph 2. Gold mining deforestation across the Amazon, by country. Data: AMW, Amazon Conservation/MAAP

Graph 3 digs deeper into the AMW data, revealing additional trends between years. This data highlights the annual changes in detected mining deforestation. Note the trend across the entire Amazon at the top in green for overall context, followed by each country. Note that Brazil (orange line) accounts for much of the annual mining (over 50%).

In 2024, we documented the new gold mining deforestation of 111,603 hectares (275,777 acres). This total represents a decrease of 35% relative to the previous year 2023 and 45% relative to the peak year 2022.

The countries with the highest levels of new gold mining deforestation in 2024 were 1) Brazil (57,240 ha), 2) Guyana (19,372 ha), 3) Suriname (15,323 ha), 4) Venezuela (9,531 ha), and 5) Peru (6,020 ha). However, all five of these countries saw a major decrease in 2024, between 33% (Brazil and Suriname) and 46% (Peru).

Graph 3. Annual changes in new mining deforestation. Data: AMW
Figure 1. Protected areas & Indigenous territories impacted by mining deforestation. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

Protected Areas & Indigenous Territories

We estimate that 36% of the accumulated mining deforestation in 2024 (over 725,000 hectares) occurred within protected areas and Indigenous territories (Figure 1; Note 2), where much of it is likely illegal.

Notably, the vast majority of this overall mining deforestation in protected areas and Indigenous territories has occurred in Brazil (88%).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2a. Top 10 impacted protected areas & Indigenous territories. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

Figure 2a illustrates the top ten for both protected areas and Indigenous territories, in terms of both accumulated mining deforestation footprint and new mining deforestation in 2024. Figures 2b-d show zooms of the three main mining areas: southeast Brazil (2b), Guyana Shield (2c), and southern Peru (2d).

The top nine most impacted protected areas (in terms of accumulated footprint) are all in Brazil, led by Tapajós Environmental Protection Area. This area has lost over 377,000 hectares, followed by Amanã and Crepori National Forests, Rio Novo National Park, Urupadi, Jamanxim, and Itaituba National Forests, Jamanxim National Park, and Altamira National Forest. The top ten is rounded out by Yapacana National Park in Venezuela.

The three most impacted Indigenous territories are also in Brazil: Kayapó, Mundurucu, and Yanomami. Together, these three territories had a mining footprint of nearly 120,000 hectares. Fourth on the list is Ikabaru in Venezuela, followed by three in southern Peru (San Jose de Karene, Barranco Chico, and Kotsimba) with mining impact of over 17,000 hectares. Rounding out the top ten are Sai Cinza and Trincheira/Bacajá in Brazil, and San Jacinto in Peru.

We also estimate the expansion of over 38,000 hectares of new mining deforestation in protected areas and Indigenous territories in 2024. The protected area with the highest levels of new mining deforestation in 2024 was Tapajós Environmental Protection Area (nearly 19,000 hectares), followed by Amanã and Urupadi National Forests in Brazil, Rio Novo and Jamanxim National Parks in Brazil, Crepori National Forest in Brazil, Campos Amazonicos National Park in Brazil, Yapacan National Park in Venezuela, Guyane Regional Park in French Guiana, and Brownsberg Nature Reserve in Suriname.

Finally, the Indigenous territory with the highest levels of new mining deforestation in 2024 was Kayapó in Brazil (over 2,100 hectares), followed by Ikabaru in Venezuela, Yanomami, Aripuana, and Mundurucu in Brazil, Baramita in Guyana, Kuruáya in Brazil, Isseneru and Kamarang Keng, San Jose de Karene in Peu. It is worth noting that Kayapó, Mundurucu, and Yanomami territories in Brazil all experienced declines in the mining deforestation rate in 2024. For example, Yanomami went from its peak in 2021 to the lowest on record in 2024.

Most impacted areas in eastern Brazilian Amazon

Figure 2b. Most impacted areas in eastern Brazilian Amazon. Data: AMW, Amazon Conservation/MAAP.

Most impacted areas in the Guyana Shield

Figure 2c. Most impacted areas in the Guyana Shield. Data: AMW, Amazon Conservation/MAAP.

Most impacted areas in the southern Peruvian Amazon

Figure 2d. Most impacted areas in the southern Peruvian Amazon. Data: AMW, Amazon Conservation/MAAP.

Conclusion & Policy Implications

Despite a recent downward trend in the rate of gold mining deforestation, the cumulative gold mining deforestation footprint continues to grow across the Amazon.

Our analysis shows that over one-third of this mining occurs within protected areas and Indigenous territories, the vast majority in Brazil. However, since the return of the Lula administration in 2023, Brazil has been ramping up enforcement efforts. This has contributed to the rapid decrease in area lost to mining across the Amazon, given Brazil’s outsized contribution to regional figures. This highlights again the importance of protected areas and Indigenous territories as a crucial policy instrument for the protection of the region’s ecosystems.

Although advances have been made in reducing illegal mining from protected areas in southern Peru, it continues to impact several Indigenous territories (MAAP #208, MAAP #196), particularly those surrounding the government-designated Mining Corridor. In fact, the most affected Indigenous territory in Peru, San Jose de Karene, has already lost over a third of its total area to illegal gold mining.  These territories are part of a regional organization known as FENAMAD, which has been supporting legal actions to help the government make decisions for a rapid response to illicit activities (such as illegal mining) that affect indigenous territories. This process led to five government-led operations between 2022 and 2024, in three communities: Barranco Chico, Kotsimba and San José de Karene (MAAP #208).

In Ecuador, mining deforestation continues to threaten numerous sites, including protected areas and Indigenous territories, along the Andes-Amazon transition zone (MAAP #206, MAAP #221, MAAP #219). An upcoming series of reports will detail these threats.

AMW is an emerging and powerful new tool, but it does have some caveats. One is that any mining activity less than 500 square meters may not be accurately detected. For example, we have been monitoring small-scale mining in several protected areas, such as Madidi National Park in Bolivia and Puinawai National Park in Colombia, that are not yet detected by the algorithm. In these cases, direct real-time monitoring with satellites is still needed. These areas will soon be added to the AMW as mining “Hotspots” (MAAP#197).

This is also the case for river-based mining that does not cause a large footprint on the ground. Imagery with very high resolution has revealed active river barge mining in northern Peru (MAAP #189) and along the Colombia/Brazil border (MAAP#197). These areas will also soon be added to the AMW as mining “Hotspots.”

Gold mining in the Amazon is certain to stay a major issue in the coming years as gold prices continue to skyrocket, reaching over $3,000 an ounce in April 2025, driven by global economic uncertainty. While there are encouraging signs of effective enforcement in Brazil, governments here and across the region will have to compete with this rising financial incentive for mining activities.

Tools such as the Amazon Mining Watch, which will eventually publish quarterly updates of newly detected mining deforestation areas, can help governments, civil society, and local community defenders spot new fronts of gold mining and take action in near real-time. In a feature developed by Conservation Strategy Fund (CSF), it will also evaluate the economic costs of socio-environmental mining damages necessary for communities and managers to declare punitive damages.

The only dashboard of this kind to be fully regional in coverage, the AMW can also help foster regional cooperation, in particular in transfrontier areas where a lack of interoperability between official monitoring systems might hamper interventions that are aimed at combating a phenomenon that is linked to other nature crimes and is mostly controlled by international organized crime. 

In the coming years, the MAAP and AMW teams will continue to publish both quarterly and annual reports of the dynamic mining situation in each country and across the Amazon, in addition to confidential reports directly to governments and community leaders on the most urgent cases.

Notes

1. Note that in this report, we focus on mining activity that causes deforestation. The vast majority is artisanal or small-scale gold mining, but other mining activities have also been detected, such as iron, aluminum, and nickel mines in Brazil and Colombia. Additional critical gold mining areas in rivers that are not yet causing deforestation (such as in northern Peru, southeast Colombia, and northwest Brazil; see MAAP #197), are not included in this report. This information is not yet displayed in Amazon Mining Watch, but future updates will include river-based mining hotspots. 

2. Our data source for protected areas and Indigenous territories is from RAISG (Amazon Network of Georeferenced Socio-Environmental Information), a consortium of civil society organizations in the Amazon countries. This source (accessed in December 2024) contains spatial data for 5,943 protected areas and Indigenous territories, covering 414.9 million hectares across the Amazon.

Acknowledgments

We thank colleagues from partner organizations around the Amazon for helpful comments on the report, including: Earth Genome, Conservación Amazónica (ACCA & ACEAA) & Federación Nativa del Río Madre de Dios y Afluentes (FENAMAD), Fundación EcoCiencia, Fundación para la Conservación y el Desarrollo Sostenible (FCDS), and Instituto Centro de Vida (ICV) & Instituto Socioambiental (ISA).

This report was made possible by the generous support of the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation.

MAAP #220: Carbon across the Amazon (part 3): Key Cases of Carbon Loss & Gain

Posted on by dcadmin
Graph 1. The Amazon biome functions as a narrow carbon sink from 2013 to 2022. Data: Planet, ACA/MAAP.

In part 1 of this series (MAAP #215), we introduced a critical new dataset (Planet’s Forest Carbon Diligence) with wall-to-wall estimates for aboveground carbon at an unprecedented 30-meter resolution between 2013 and 2022. This data uniquely merges machine learning, satellite imagery, airborne lasers, and a global biomass dataset from GEDI, a NASA mission.

In part 2 (MAAP #217), we highlighted which parts of the Amazon are currently home to the highest (peak) aboveground carbon levels and the importance of protecting these high-integrity forests (see Annex 1).

Here, in part 3, we focus on aboveground carbon loss and gain across the Amazon over the 10 years for which we have data (2013-22; see Base Map below).

The Amazon loses carbon to the atmosphere due to deforestation, logging, human-caused fires, and natural disturbances, while it gains carbon from forest regeneration and old-growth forests continuing to sequester atmospheric carbon.4

Overall, we find that the Amazon still narrowly functions as a carbon sink (meaning the carbon gain is greater than the loss) during this period, gaining 64.7 million metric tons of aboveground carbon between 2013 and 2022 (see Graph 1).

This finding underscores the importance of both primary and secondary forests in countering widespread deforestation. Moreover, it highlights the critical potential of primary forests to continue accumulating carbon if left undisturbed.

This gain, however, is quite small relative to the total 56.8 billion metric tons of aboveground carbon contained in the Amazon biome (that is, a gain of just +0.1%), reinforcing concerns that the Amazon could flip to a carbon source in the coming years (with carbon loss becoming greater than its gain) due to increasing deforestation, degradation, and fires.1  See Annex 2 for more details, including how the Amazon became a carbon sink following the 2015 drought, but since rebounded.

The countries with the largest carbon gain are 1) Brazil, 2) Colombia, 3) Suriname, 4) Guyana, and 5) French Guiana. In contrast, the countries with the greatest carbon loss are 1) Bolivia, 2) Venezuela, 3) Peru, and 4) Ecuador.

Zooming in to the site level yields additional insights. For example, we can now estimate the carbon loss from major deforestation events across the Amazon from 2013 to 2022. On the flip side, we can also calculate the carbon gain from both secondary and primary forests.

Areas with carbon gain in intact areas indicate excellent candidates for the High Integrity Forest (HIFOR) initiative, a new financing instrument uniquely focused on maintaining intact tropical forests.2 Importantly, a HIFOR unit represents a hectare of high-integrity tropical forest within a high-integrity landscape that has been “well-conserved” for over a decade.3  Intact areas with carbon gain between 2013-22 may indicate decadally “well-conserved” areas that can be overlapped with areas of high ecological integrity.

Below, we illustrate these findings with a series of novel maps zooming in on emblematic cases of large carbon loss and gain across the Amazon from 2013 – 2022. These cases include forest loss driven by agriculture, gold mining, and roads, as well as forest gain in remote primary forests.

Base Map – Amazon Carbon Loss & Gain (2013-2022)

The Base Map shows wall-to-wall estimates of aboveground carbon loss and gain across the Amazon between 2013 and 2022.

Carbon loss is indicated by yellow to red, indicating low to high carbon loss. Carbon gain is indicated by light to dark green, indicating low to high carbon gains.

Below, we present a series of notable cases of high carbon loss and gain indicated in Insets A-I.

Base Map. Areas of major carbon loss and gain across the Amazon between 2013 and 2022. Source: Amazon Conservation/MAAP, Planet.

Emblematic Cases of Carbon Loss & Gain

Figure 1 highlights emblematic cases of carbon loss (Insets A-F in red) and carbon gain (Insets G-I in green). Below we highlight a series of emblematic cases.

Figure 1. Emblematic cases of carbon loss and gain across the Amazon. Source: Amazon Conservation/MAAP, Planet.

Carbon Loss

We can now estimate the carbon loss from major deforestation events across the Amazon during the past ten years, directly from a single dataset. These cases include forest loss from agriculture, gold mining, and roads. Note that the presented values represent just the carbon loss featured in the selected area.

A. Colombia – Arc of Deforestation

Figure 1A. Carbon loss in the Colombian Amazon’s arc of deforestation. Source: Amazon Conservation/MAAP, Planet.

Figure 1A shows the extensive carbon emissions (39.5 million metric tons) associated with the major deforestation within and surrounding protected areas and Indigenous territories in the Colombian Amazon‘s arc of deforestation.

The carbon loss within the protected areas and Indigenous territories is likely from illegal deforestation.

See MAAP #211 for more details.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

B. Peru – Mennonite Colonies

Figure 1B. Carbon loss by new Mennonite colonies in the Peruvian Amazon. Source: Amazon Conservation/MAAP, Planet.

Figure 1B shows the carbon emissions of 224,300 metric tons associated with the recent deforestation carried out by new Mennonite colonies arriving in the central Peruvian Amazon starting in 2017.

See MAAP #188 for more details, including information regarding the legality of  the deforestation causing the carbon loss.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

C. Peru – Gold Mining

Figure 1C. Carbon loss associated with gold mining deforestation in  southern Peruvian Amazon. Source: ACA/MAAP, Planet.

Figure 1C shows the extensive carbon emissions (11.3 million metric tons) associated with gold mining deforestation in the southern Peruvian Amazon.

Most of the carbon loss within the protected areas (and their buffer zones) and Indigenous territories is likely from illegal deforestation.

See MAAP #208 for more information, including details regarding the legality of the deforestation causing the carbon loss.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

D. Brazil – Road BR-364

Figure 1D. Carbon loss along BR-364 in the southwest Brazilian Amazon. Source: ACA/MAAP, Planet.

Figure 1D shows the carbon emissions along road BR-364 that crosses the state of Acre in the southwest Brazilian Amazon.

This road was opened in the 1960s and paved in the 1980s.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

E. Brazil – Road BR-319

Figure 1E. Carbon loss along paved roads. Source: ACA/MAAP, Planet.

Figure 1E shows a controversial road paving project that would effectively link the arc of deforestation to the south with more intact forests to the north in Amazonas and Roraima states.

Note that the current carbon loss is concentrated along the paved roads.

The paving of road BR-319 has recently caused headlines as President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva recently authorized the paving of 20 km of the road and plans to bid for an additional 32 km (thus, paving of 52 km in total).

Modeling studies predict extensive new deforestation from this road construction, and thus additional associated carbon loss.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

F. Brazil – Road BR-163

Figure 1F. Carbon loss along BR-163 in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. Source: ACA/MAAP, Planet.

Figure 1F shows the extensive carbon emissions (71.4 million metric tons) along a recently paved stretch of road BR-163 which crosses the state of Pará in the eastern Brazilian Amazon.

Importantly, this stretch of road has been presented as a case study of what may happen along road BR-319 if it is paved.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Carbon Gain

We can also calculate the carbon gain from both secondary and primary forests. These cases include forest gain from remote primary forests that may be good candidates for the HIFOR initiative.

Figure 1G. Carbon gains in the southeast Colombian Amazon. Source: ACA/MAAP, Planet.

G. Southeast Colombia

Figure 1G shows the carbon gain of over 52.5 million metric tons in the remote southeast Colombian Amazon.

This area is anchored by three national parks and several large indigenous territories.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1H. Carbon gains along the border of eastern Ecuador and northern Peru. Source: ACA/MAAP, Planet.

H. Ecuador – Peru border

Figure 1H shows the carbon gain of nearly 40 million metric tons along the border in eastern Ecuador and northern Peru.

Note this area is anchored by numerous protected areas, including Yasuni National Park in Ecuador and Pucacuro National Reserve in Peru, and Indigenous territories.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1I. Carbon gains in the tri-border region of the northeast Amazon. Source: ACA/MAAP, Planet.

I. Northeast Amazon

Figure 1I shows the carbon gain of 164.7 million metric tons in the tri-border region of the northeast Amazon (northern Brazil, French Guiana, and Suriname).

For example, note the carbon gains in Montanhas do Tumucumaque National Park and Tumucumaque Indigenous territory in northeast Brazil.

Also note that this was an Amazonian “peak carbon area,” as described in MAAP #217.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Annex 1

Annex 1. Peak carbon areas in relation to the carbon loss and gain data. Source: Amazon Conservation/MAAP, Planet.

In part 2 of this series (MAAP #217), we highlighted which parts of the Amazon are currently home to the highest (peak) aboveground carbon levels.

Annex 1 shows these peak carbon areas in relation to the carbon loss and gain data presented above.

Note that both peak carbon areas (southeast and northeast Amazon) are largely characterized by carbon gain.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Annex 2

Annex 2. Amazon biome functions as a narrow carbon sink from 2013 to 2022, but became a source in between. Data: Planet, ACA/MAAP.

Annex 2 shows all ten years of aboveground carbon data grouped by two-year intervals (thus, it is an extension of Graph 1 above, adding data for the intermediate years).

In this context, black indicates our baseline of 2013-14, red indicates a decrease from the baseline (carbon source), and green indicates an increase from the baseline (carbon sink).

Importantly, there was a decrease in aboveground carbon from 2015-18, which likely reflects the severe droughts of 2015 and 2016 and subsequent severe fire seasons of 2016 and 2017. Aboveground carbon rebounded from 2019-22.

This trend supports the hypothesis that the Amazon biome is teetering on being an aboveground carbon source vs sink.

It also raises the possibility that the Amazon may return to being a carbon source following the intense drought and fires of 2024.

.

.

Notes

1 In part 1 of this series (MAAP #215), we found the Amazon “is still functioning as a critical carbon sink”. As pointed out in a companion blog by Planet, however, the net carbon sink of +64 million metric tons is quite small relative to the total estimate of 56.8 billion metric tons of aboveground carbon across the Amazon. That is a net positive change of just +0.1%. As the blog notes, that’s a “very small buffer” and there’s “reason to worry that the biome could flip from sink to source with ongoing deforestation.”

2 High Integrity Forest (HIFOR) units are a new, non-offset asset that recognizes and rewards the essential climate services and biodiversity conservation that intact tropical forests provide, including ongoing net removal of CO2 from the atmosphere. HIFOR rewards the climate services that intact tropical forests provide, including ongoing net carbon removal from the atmosphere, and complements existing instruments to reduce emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD+) by focusing on tropical forests that are largely undegraded. A HIFOR unit represents a hectare of well-conserved, high-integrity tropical forest where ‘well-conserved’ means that high ecological integrity is maintained over a decade of monitoring as part of equitable, effective management of a site and ‘high ecological integrity’ means a score of >9.6 on the Forest Landscape Integrity Index. For more information see https://www.wcs.org/our-work/climate-change/forests-and-climate-change/hifor

3 Two additional important references regarding HIFOR methodology and application:

High Integrity Forest Investment Initiative, Methodology for HIFOR units, April 2024. Downloaded from https://www.wcs.org/our-work/climate-change/forests-and-climate-change/hifor

Forest Landscape Integrity Index metric used by HIFOR: www.forestintegrity.com

4 In Planet’s Forest Carbon Diligence product, carbon loss and gain are detected via changes in canopy cover and canopy height during the given periods (in this case, 2013 vs 2022).

Acknowledgments

Through a generous sharing agreement with the satellite company Planet, we have been granted access to this data across the entire Amazon biome for the analysis presented in this series.

We also thank D. Zarin (WCS) for helpful comments regarding the implications of our findings for the HIFOR initiative.

This report was made possible by the generous support of the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD)

Citation

Finer M, Mamani N, Anderson C, Rosenthal A (2024) Carbon across the Amazon (part 3): Key Cases of Carbon Loss & Gain. MAAP: 220.

MAAP #222: Mennonite Colonies Continue Major Deforestation in Peruvian Amazon

Posted on by Matt Finer
Base Map. Mennonite Colonies in the Peruvian Amazon. Data: ACA/MAAP.

In a series of reports, we have demonstrated that the Mennonites have become a leading cause of large-scale deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon.

The Mennonites, a global religious group dating back to the 1600s, often require vast tracts of land to support their characteristic industrialized agricultural activity. As such lands have become scarce in other parts of Latin America, new Mennonite colonies began appearing in the Peruvian Amazon as of 2017.

In October 2019, we first reported on the deforestation of 2,500 hectares across three colonies (Masisea, Vanderland, and Osterreich; MAAP #112). A year later, in October 2020, this deforestation increased to 3,440 hectares (MAAP #127).

By the end of 2021, two new colonies (Providencia and Chipiar) had appeared, and the total deforestation had reached 3,968 hectares (MAAP #149).

Deforestation across all five colonies increased to 4,819 hectares by October 2022 (MAAP #166) and 7,032 hectares by August 2023 (MAAP #188).

Here, we update our findings, showing that deforestation across all five colonies has increased to 8,660 hectares (21,400 acres), as of October 2024.

Below, we illustrate the increase in Mennonite deforestation over the past eight years and show the pattern in each colony with satellite images.

In addition, there is mounting evidence that this massive deforestation is illegal, with numerous ongoing investigations by the Peruvian government (see the Legal Summary, below).

 

 

Graph 1. Deforestation caused by Mennonites in the Peruvian Amazon from 2019 to 2024. Data: ACA/MAAP.

The increasing deforestation of the Mennonites in Peru

 

Graph 1 illustrates the rapid increase in Mennonite deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon, from zero in 2017 to over 8,660 hectares in 2024.

It is the clearest evidence yet that authorities need a more effective strategy to avoid continued escalating deforestation.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Deforestation in Mennonite Colonies (Peruvian Amazon)

Chipiar Colony

Figure 1. Deforestation in the Chipiar Mennonite colony. Data: ACA/MAAP, Planet.

This colony is located on both sides of the border between the departments of Ucayali and Loreto, originating in the district of Padre Marquez on the Loreto side.

It is the newest colony, where deforestation began in 2020.

This deforestation escalated in 2021, peaked in 2022, and continues to expand in 2023 in 2024.

We document the deforestation of 2,708 hectares in the Chipiar colony since 2020.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Vanderland, Osterreich & Providencia Colonies

Figure 2. Deforestation in the Vanderland, Osterreich & Providencia Mennonite colonies. Data: ACA/MAAP, Planet.

These three colonies are located near the town of Tierra Blanca, in the Loreto region.

We have documented the deforestation of 4,824 hectares since 2017.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Masisea Colony

Figure 3. Deforestation in the Masisea Mennonite colony. Data: ACA/MAAP, Planet.

This colony, located in the Ucayali region, was the first to be established in Peru (2017) and was occupied by settlers who arrived from Bolivia.

Deforestation of 963 hectares has been documented in the Masisea colony since 2017.

Deforestation was most intense between 2017 and 2019, with a small expansion between 2022 and 2024.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Legal Summary

MAAP #188 details the legal actions taken by the Peruvian government. The Specialized Prosecutor’s Office for Environmental Matters (FEMA in Spanish) is conducting ongoing investigations against all five Mennonite colonies.

In addition, National Forestry and Wildlife Service (SERFOR in Spanish) has received five complaints for deforestation activities without authorizations for clearing, which have been referred to the competent entities.

Likewise, through a judicial process, before the Second Criminal Appeals Chamber of the Superior Court of Justice of Ucayali, it ratified the suspension of predatory deforestation and logging activities by the colony in July 2023.

Since August 2024, the Regional Forestry and Wildlife Management of Ucayali – GERFFS, especially the Illegal Logging Directorate, has been coordinating prioritization actions for this case with other competent actors such as the Specialized Prosecutor’s Office for Environmental Matters – FEMA and the National Police of Peru – PNP.

 

Citation

Finer M, Mamani N, Ariñez A (2024) Mennonite Colonies Continue Major Deforestation in Peruvian Amazon. MAAP: 222.

MAAP #217: Carbon across the Amazon (part 2): Peak Carbon Areas

Posted on by dcadmin
Figure 1. Example of peak carbon areas in southern Peru and adjacent western Brazil. Data: Planet.

In part 1 of this series (MAAP #215), we introduced a critical new resource (Planet Forest Carbon Diligence) that provides wall-to-wall estimates for aboveground carbon density at an unprecedented 30-meter resolution. This data uniquely merges machine learning, satellite imagery, airborne lasers, and a global biomass dataset from GEDI, a NASA mission.4

In that report, we showed that the Amazon contains 56.8 billion metric tons of aboveground carbon (as of 2022), and described key patterns across all nine countries of the Amazon biome over the past decade.

Here, in part 2, we focus on the peak carbon areas of the Amazon that are home to the highest aboveground carbon levels.

These peak carbon areas correspond to the upper one-third of aboveground carbon density levels (>140 metric tons per hectare).1

They likely have experienced minimal degradation (such as selective logging, fire, and edge/fragmentation effects)2 and are thus a good proxy for high-integrity forests.

Figure 1 shows an important example of peak carbon areas in southern Peru and adjacent western Brazil.

The peak carbon areas are often found in the remote primary forests of protected areas and Indigenous territories, but some are located in forestry concessions (specifically, logging concessions) or undesignated lands (also referred to as undesignated public forests).

Our goal in this report is to leverage unprecedented aboveground carbon data to reinforce the importance of these designated areas and draw attention to the remaining undesignated lands.

For example, peak carbon areas would be excellent candidates for the High Integrity Forest (HIFOR) initiative, a new financing instrument that uniquely focuses on maintaining intact tropical forests.3 HIFOR rewards the climate services that intact tropical forests provide, including ongoing net carbon removal from the atmosphere, and complements existing instruments to reduce emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD+) by focusing on tropical forests that are largely undegraded.

Below, we detail the major findings and then zoom in on the peak carbon areas in the northeast and southwest Amazon.

Peak Carbon Areas in the Amazon   

The Base Map below illustrates our major findings.

The peak carbon areas (>140 metric tons per hectare; indicated in pink) are concentrated in the southwest and northeast Amazon, covering 27.8 million hectares (11 million ha in the southwest and 16.8 million ha in the northeast).
k

Base Map. Planet Forest Carbon Diligence across the Amazon biome for the year 2022. Data: Planet.

In the southwest Amazon, peak carbon levels are found in southern & central Peru, and adjacent western Brazil.

In the northeast Amazon, peak carbon levels are found in northeast Brazil, much of French Guiana, and parts of Suriname.

By country, Brazil and Peru have the largest area of peak carbon (10.9 million and 10.1 million hectares respectively), followed by French Guiana (4.7 million ha), and Suriname (2.1 million ha).

Protected areas and Indigenous territories cover much (61%) of the peak carbon area (16.9 million hectares).

The remaining 39% remains unprotected, and arguably threatened, in undesignated lands (9.4 million hectares) and forestry concessions (1.5 million ha), respectively.

In addition, high carbon areas (>70 metric tons per hectare; indicated by the greenish-yellow coloration in the Base Map) are found in all nine countries of the Amazon biome, notably Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Venezuela, and Guyana.

Southwest Amazon

­Southern Peru

Figure 2a. Peak carbon area in the southern Peruvian Amazon. Data: Planet, SERNANP, RAISG.

Figure 2a zooms in on the peak carbon area covering 7.9 million hectares in southern Peru (regions of Madre de Dios, Cusco, and Ucayali) and adjacent southwest Brazil (Acre).

Several protected areas (such as Manu and Alto Purús National Parks, and Machiguenga Communal Reserve) anchor this area.

It is also home to numerous Indigenous territories (such as Mashco Piro, Madre de Dios, and Kugapakori, Nahua, Nanti & Others Indigenous Reserves).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2b highlights the major land designations within the peak carbon area of southern Peru.

Figure 2b. Peak carbon areas (outlined in pink), categorized by land designation in southern Peru and adjacent western Brazil. Data: Planet, NICFI, SERNANP, SERFOR, RAISG.

Protected areas and Indigenous territories cover 77% of this area (green and brown, respectively).

The remaining 23% could be considered threatened, as they are located in forestry concessions or undesignated lands (orange and red, respectively). Thus, these areas are ideal candidates for increased protection to maintain their peak carbon levels.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Central Peru

Figure 3a. Peak carbon area in the central Peruvian Amazon. Data: Planet, SERNANP, RAISG.

Figure 3a zooms in on the peak carbon area in the central Peruvian Amazon, which covers 3.1 million hectares in the regions of Ucayali, Loreto, Huánuco, Pasco, and San Martin.

Several protected areas (including Sierra del Divisor, Cordillera Azul, Rio Abiseo, and Yanachaga–Chemillén National Parks, and El Sira Communal Reserve) anchor this area.

It is also home to numerous Indigenous territories (such as Kakataibo, Isconahua, and Yavarí Tapiche Indigenous Reserves).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 3b. Peak carbon areas (outlined in pink), categorized by land designation in central Peru. Data: Planet, NICFI, SERNANP, SERFOR, RAISG.

Figure 3b highlights the major land designations within the peak carbon area of central Peru.

Protected areas and Indigenous territories cover 69% of this area (green and brown, respectively).

The remaining 31% could be considered threatened, as they are located in forestry concessions or undesignated lands (orange and red, respectively), and are ideal candidates for increased protection.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Northeast Amazon

Figure 4a. Peak carbon area in the tri-border region of the northeast Amazon. Data: Planet, RAISG.

Figure 4a zooms in on the peak carbon area in the tri-border region of the northeast Amazon, which covers 16.8 million hectares in northern Brazil, French Guiana, and Suriname.

Several protected areas (including Montanhas do Tumucumaque National Park in northeast Brazil, Amazonien de Guyane National Park in French Guiana, and Central Suriname Nature Reserve) anchor this area.

It is also home to numerous Indigenous territories (such as Tumucumaque, Rio Paru de Este, and Wayãpi in northeast Brazil).

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 4b. Peak carbon areas (outlined in pink), categorized by land designation in northeast Amazon. Data: Planet, NICFI, RAISG.

Figure 4b highlights the major land designations within the peak carbon area of the northeast Amazon.

Protected areas and Indigenous territories cover just over half (51%) of this area (green and brown, respectively).

The remaining 49% could be considered threatened, as they are located in undesignated lands, and are ideal candidates for increased protection.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Notes

1 We selected this value (upper 33%) to capture the highest aboveground carbon areas and include a range of high carbon areas. Additional analyses could target different values, such as the highest 10% or 20% of aboveground carbon.

2  A recent paper documented a strong relationship between selective logging and aboveground carbon loss (Csillik et al. 2024, PNAS). The link between forest edges and carbon is presented in Silva Junior et al, Science Advances.

3 High Integrity Forest (HIFOR) units are a new tradable asset that recognizes and rewards the essential climate services and biodiversity conservation that intact tropical forests provide, including ongoing net removal of CO2 from the atmosphere. For more information see https://www.wcs.org/our-work/climate-change/forests-and-climate-change/hifor

4 For more information, see the “What is Forest Carbon Diligence?” section in this recent blog from Planet.

Citation

Finer M, Mamani N, Anderson C, Rosenthal A (2024) Carbon across the Amazon (part 2): Peak Carbon Areas. MAAP #217.

Acknowledgments

This report was made possible by the generous support of the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD)

MAAP #218: Killing of Environmental Defenders in the Peruvian Amazon

Posted on by dcadmin

 

Peruvian environmental defender Edwin Chota was murdered by illegal loggers in 2014 for attempting to protect his Indigenous community from Exploitation. See Illegal Logging section. Photo: NYT/Tomas Munita.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Amazon Conservation’s MAAP program specializes in reporting on the most urgent deforestation threats facing the Amazon and producing big-picture analyses of key Amazon-wide issues.

This report uniquely presents a view into the complicated but critical issue of murders of environmental defenders, examining the relationship between the location of these killings and deforestation in the Peruvian Amazon to provide a better understanding of the context of their deaths.

Between 2010 and 2022, an estimated 29 Peruvian environmentalists and Indigenous leaders were killed while defending various parts of Peru’s Amazon from invaders seeking to exploit its resources (RAISG 2022).

Importantly, the frequency of these murders has increased in recent years, with nearly half (14 out of 29) occurring since 2020.

Our findings indicate that these murders are connected to five major issues in the Peruvian Amazon:
Illegal gold mining, Illegal logging, Illicit crops (coca), Land trafficking, and Protesting.

This report focuses on the first three (Illegal gold mining, Illegal logging, and Illicit crops).

Base Map

Base Map. Location of the 29 environmental defenders murdered in Peru and the suspected causes related to major environmental threats in the region 2010-2022. Sources: IBC, MINJUS, SERNANP, Conservación Amazónica-ACCA.

The Base Map shows the location of the 29 documented environmental defenders killed in Peru between 2010-2022.

It also indicates the environmental threat related to each death as the suspected or confirmed motive for the crime: Illegal Gold Mining, Illegal Logging, Illicit Crops (coca), Land Trafficking, and Protest.

Note that many of the murders occurred in geographic clusters that coincide with the major environmental conflict of that specific area.

For example, gold mining is a major cause of conflict in the southern Peruvian Amazon, while illegal logging and illicit crops are more common threats in the central Peruvian Amazon.

Murders related to Illegal Gold Mining

Illegal gold mining has long been, and continues to be, a major issue in the southern Peruvian Amazon (Madre de Dios region), particularly in Indigenous territories and protected area buffer zones (MAAP#208).

For example, Figure 1 illustrates the extensive gold mining deforestation (indicated in orange) in the Tambopata National Reserve buffer zone and surrounding Indigenous territories.

Figure 1. Three cases of environmental defender deaths related to illegal mining. Sources: IBC, MINJUS, SERNANP, Conservación Amazónica-ACCA.

Since 2015, three environmental defenders have been killed within or near the Tambopata National Reserve buffer zone (see yellow dots in Figure 1). All three cases involved forestry concessionaires trying to defend their concession from illegal mining invasion.

In 2015, Alfredo Vracko Neuenschwander was killed near the critical mining area known as “La Pampa” located in the core of the buffer zone. Note that during the two years prior to his death, more than 1,700 hectares were deforested in La Pampa due to illegal gold mining (MAAP #1). Vracko, who was president of the Madre de Dios Federation of Forestry and Reforestation Concessionaires at the time, is believed to have been killed by illegal miners who were scheduled to be evicted from his forestry concession on the same day. However, his murder remains officially unsolved.

In 2020, Roberto Carlos Pacheco Villanueva was killed just outside the Tambopata buffer zone. Villanueva owned a forestry concession that had been illegally deforested and burned by invaders linked to illegal mining. Having filed legal complaints about the illegal use of his land, Villanueva faced numerous threats against his life in the years leading up to his murder. While still unsolved, it is believed that his murder was committed by the same miners who invaded his concession.

More recently, in 2022, Juan Julio Fernández Hanco was murdered just off the Interoceanic Highway near the edge of the Tambopata buffer zone. During this period (2021-2023), nearly 24,000 hectares were deforested due to gold mining in this area (MAAP #195). The investigation is ongoing, with the suspects being illegal miners who invaded Juan Julio’s reforestation concessions.

Murders related to Illegal Logging

Illegal logging has been a significant problem across the Peruvian Amazon for years. A recent report revealed that over 20% of timber harvested in Peru in 2021 came from illegal origins (OSINFOR, 2024). Loreto, Madre de Dios, Amazonas, and Ucayali were identified as the regions with the highest levels of unauthorized timber extraction.

Figure 2. Four environmental defender deaths related to illegal logging. Sources: IBC, MINJUS, DEVIDA, SERNANP, ACCA.

In 2014, illegal loggers murdered four men from the community of Alto Tamaya-Saweto, in one of the most well-known murder cases of Peruvian environmental defenders. These defenders (Edwin Chota Valera, Francisco Pinedo Ramírez, Jorge Ríos Pérez, and Leoncio Quintisima Meléndez) were killed along the Peru-Brazil border (see orange dots in Figure 2), following a decade of complaints from Chota about the presence of criminal logging groups in their community. Ten years later, in April 2024, a group of loggers were found guilty of the murders and sentenced to nearly 30 years in prison. This case has since been appealed with the expectation of going to Peru’s supreme court.

Murders related to Illicit Crops (Coca)

Official data indicates that the surface area of coca production in Peru continues to increase, particularly in the central Peruvian Amazon along the Andes Mountains (in the regions of Ucayali and Huánuco). Since 2010, ten environmental defenders have been killed in this area related to their fight against coca-related activities (see red dots in Figure 3).

Figure 3. Ten cases of environmental defender deaths related to illegal coca production. Sources: IBC, MINJUS, DEVIDA, SERNANP, Conservación Amazónica-ACCA.

Three environmental defenders (Santiago Vega Chota, Yenes Ríos Bonsano, and Herasmo García Grau) were killed in 2020 and 2021 within or near their communities of Sinchi Roca and Puerto Nuevo in the region of Ucayali, following their attempts to monitor their communities’ territories for coca production. Both communities are located within a coca production zone known as Aguaytía, which experienced a 158% increase in coca cultivation between 2018 and 2022 (DEVIDA 2022).

Between 2010 and 2020, four environmental defenders (Segundo José Reategui, Manuel Tapullima, Justo Gonzales Sangama, and Arbildo Melendez) were murdered in or near the Unipacuyacu Indigenous community. These four deaths have been linked to illegal coca production by outsiders on community lands that have not yet been officially titled by the government, which has facilitated these invasions. Unipacuyacu is located within the Pichis-Palcazu-Pachitea coca production zone spanning the Huánuco and Pasco regions, where coca cultivation increased by more than 450% between 2018 and 2022 (DEVIDA 2022).

Finally, three other environmental defenders (Jesús Berti Antaihua Quispe, Gemerson Pizango Narvaes, and Nusat Parisada Benavides de la Cruz) were killed in 2022 in their communities of Santa Teresa and Cleyton. These two indigenous communities are located within and just outside of the in an area outside of the El Sira Communal Reserve buffer zone. During the four years leading up to their deaths, coca production in El Sira and its buffer zone increased by over 500% (DEVIDA 2022). While unconfirmed, it is believed that these murders were committed by mafias tied to drug trafficking and illegal mining.

Regulatory Basis

Peru ranks among the countries with the highest number of environmental defender deaths worldwide (Global Witness 2023).

Peru’s National Plan for Human Rights 2018-2021, defines an environmental defender as someone who: As an individual or collective, carries out a legitimate activity, paid or not, consisting of demanding and promoting, within the legally permitted framework, in a peaceful and nonviolent manner, the effectiveness of violated rights. Their efforts are usually manifested publicly through demands and raised through regular process channels, conforming with the framework devoted to these fundamental rights.

To address the vulnerability of environmental defenders, the Peruvian government, specifically the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights (MINJUSDH), has developed regulations to ensure their protection. The most important of these are:

Regulation Title Importance
 

Supreme Decree N 002-2018-JUS

  

National Plan for Human Rights 2018-2021

 Establishes that environmental defenders are a group of special protection and requests that the state adopts measures to protect them.
 

Supreme Decree 004-2021-JUS

  

Intersectoral Mechanism for the Protection of Human Rights Defenders

 Establishes the principles, measures, and proceedings to guarantee the prevention, protection, and access to justice for human rights defenders prior to risk situations, being the highest ranking standard in the country.
 

Ministerial Resolution 255-2020-JUS

  

Registry on Risk Situations for Human Rights Defenders

 

 Recognizes, analyzes, and manages information about the risks that human rights defenders face, and adopts actions to prevent threats.

 

Peru has also taken an intersectoral approach by coordinating participation among eight ministries: Ministry of Justice and Human Rights, Ministry of the Interior, Ministry of the Environment, Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Woman and Vulnerable Populations, Ministry of External Relations, Ministry of Energy and Mines, and Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation Development. A public implementing agency, the National Commission for Development and Life Without Drugs (DEVIDA), also cooperates with this effort.

Despite these efforts, defenders continue to face criminalization, legal harassment, and threats of violence and murder. This shows the urgent need to strengthen their protection and institutional support in Peru.

In response, the Peruvian Congress has recently enacted three new laws to further protect human rights defenders. These include (i) Bill 4686/2022-CR, a law that recognizes and protects defenders of environmental rights, and (ii) Bill 2069/2021-PE, a law for the protection and assistance of communal and/or Indigenous or native leaders at risk. Moving forward, how the ongoing Alto Tamaya-Saweto case proceeds through Peru’s Supreme Court will be crucial to future efforts to protect environmental and human rights defenders.

References

Comisión Nacional Para El Desarrollo y Vida Sin Drogas (DEVIDA). 2023. Perú: Monitoreo de cultivos de coca 2022.

Global Witness 2023. Casi 2.000 personas defensoras de la tierra y el medioambiente asesinadas entre 2012 y 2022 por proteger el planeta.

Organismo de Supervisión de los Recursos Forestales y de Fauna Silvestre (OSINFOR). 2024. Estimación del índice y porcentaje de tala y comercio ilegal de madera en el Perú 2021.

Red Amazónica de Información Socioambiental Georreferenciada (RAISG). 2022. Presiones, amenazas y violencia en la Amazonía peruana.

Acknowledgments

This report was prepared with support from the Instituto de Bien Común (IBC).

Citation

Montoya M, Bonilla A, Novoa S, Tipula P, Salisbury D, Quispe M, Finer M, Folhadella A, Cohen M (2024) Killing of Environmental Defenders in the Peruvian Amazon. MAAP:218.

MAAP #215: Unprecedented Look at Carbon across the Amazon (part 1)

Posted on by dcadmin
Figure 1. Example of Planet Forest Carbon Diligence, focused on southern Peru and adjacent western Brazil.

The Amazon biome has long been one of the world’s largest carbon sinks, helping stabilize the global climate.

Precisely estimating this carbon, however, has been a challenge. Fortunately, new satellite-based technologies are providing major advances, most notably NASA’s GEDI mission (see MAAP #213) and, most recently, Planet Forest Carbon Diligence.1

Here, we focus on the latter, analyzing Planet’s cutting-edge new dataset, featuring a 10-year historical time series (2013 – 2022) with wall-to-wall estimates for aboveground carbon density at 30-meter resolution.

As a result, we can produce high-resolution aboveground carbon maps and estimates for anywhere and everywhere across the vast Amazon (see Figure 1).

Through a generous sharing agreement with Planet, we have been granted access to this data across the entire Amazon biome for the analysis presented in the following three-part series:

  1. Estimate and illustrate total aboveground forest carbon across the Amazon biome in unprecedented detail (see results of this first report, below).
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  2. Highlight which parts of the Amazon are home to the highest aboveground carbon levels, including protected areas and Indigenous territories (see second report, MAAP #217).
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  3. Present emblematic deforestation cases that have resulted in the highest aboveground carbon emissions across the Amazon (see third report, MAAP #220).

Major Results

Carbon across the Amazon

Based on our analysis of Planet Forest Carbon Diligence, we estimate that the Amazon contained 56.8 billion metric tons of aboveground carbon, as of 2022 (see Base Map). Applying a standard root-to-shoot ratio conversion (26%), this estimate increases to 71.5 billion metric tons of above and belowground carbon. This total is equivalent to nearly two years of global carbon dioxide emissions at the peak 2022 level (37.15 billion metric tons).5

The peak carbon levels are largely concentrated in the southwest Amazon (southern Peru and adjacent western Brazil) and northeast Amazon (northeast Brazil, French Guiana, and Suriname).

Base Map. Planet Forest Carbon Diligence across the Amazon biome.

Total Carbon by Country

As shown in Graph 1, countries with the most aboveground carbon are 1) Brazil (57%; 32.1 billion metric tons), 2) Peru (15%; 8.3 billion metric tons), 3) Colombia (7%; 4 billion metric tons), 4) Venezuela (6%; 3.3 billion metric tons), and 5) Bolivia (6%; 3.2 billion metric tons). These countries are followed by Guyana (3%; 2 billion metric tons), Suriname (3%; 1.6 billion metric tons), Ecuador (2%; 1.2 billion metric tons), and French Guiana (2%; 1.1 billion metric tons).

Overall, we documented the total gain of 64.7 million metric tons of aboveground carbon across the Amazon during the ten years between 2013 and 2022.2 In other words, the Amazon is still functioning as a critical carbon sink.

The countries with the most aboveground carbon gain over the past ten years are 1) Brazil, 2) Colombia, 3) Suriname, 4) Guyana, and 5) French Guiana. Note that we show Brazil as a carbon sink (gain of 102.8 million metric tons), despite other recent studies showing it as a carbon source.3 Also note the important gains in aboveground carbon across several key High Forest cover, Low Deforestation (HFLD) countries, namely Colombia, Suriname, Guyana, and French Guiana.4

In contrast, the countries with the most aboveground carbon loss over the past ten years are 1) Bolivia, 2) Venezuela, 3) Peru, and 4) Ecuador.

Graph 1. Planet Forest Carbon Diligence data across the Amazon biome, comparing 2013-14 with 2021-22. Note that a “+” symbol indicates that the country gained aboveground carbon, while a “-“ symbol indicates that the country lost aboveground carbon.

Carbon Density by Country

Standardizing for area, Graph 2 shows that countries with the highest aboveground carbon density (that is, aboveground carbon per hectare as of 2021-22) are located in the northeast Amazon: French Guiana (134 metric tons/hectare), Suriname (122 metric tons/hectare), and Guyana (85 metric tons/hectare). Ecuador is also high (94 metric tons/hectare).

Note that countries in the northeast Amazon (French Guiana, Suriname, and Guyana) have lower total aboveground carbon due to their smaller size (Graph 1), but high aboveground carbon density per hectare (Graph 2). This also applies to Ecuador.

Graph 2. Planet Forest Carbon Diligence data for aboveground carbon density by country across the Amazon, comparing 2013-14 with 2021-22. Note that a “+” symbol indicates that the country gained aboveground carbon, while a “-“ symbol indicates that the country lost aboveground carbon.

Notes & Citations

1 Anderson C (2024) Forest Carbon Diligence: Breaking Down The Validation And Intercomparison Report. https://www.planet.com/pulse/forest-carbon-diligence-breaking-down-the-validation-and-intercomparison-report/

2 In terms of uncertainty, the data contains pixel-level estimates, but not yet at national levels. To minimize annual uncertainty at the country level, we averaged 2013 and 2014 for the baseline and 2021 and 2022 for the current state.

3 Recently, in MAAP #144, we showed Brazil as a carbon source, based on data from 2001 to 2020. In contrast, Planet Forest Carbon Diligence is based on data from 2013 to 2022. Thus, one interpretation of the difference is that most carbon loss occurred in the first decade of the 2000s, which is consistent with historical deforestation data showing peaks in the early 2000s. It also highlights the likely importance of the interplay between forest loss/degradation (carbon loss) and forest regeneration (carbon gain) in terms of whether a country is a carbon source or sink during a given timeframe.

4 HFDL, or “High Forest cover, Low Deforestation” describes countries with both a) high forest cover (>50%) and low deforestation rates (<0.22% per year). For more information on HFDL, see https://www.conservation.org/blog/what-on-earth-is-hfld-hint-its-about-forests

5 Annual carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions worldwide from 1940 to 2023

Citation

Finer M, Mamani N, Anderson C, Rosenthal A (2024) Unprecedented Look at Carbon across the Amazon. MAAP  #215.

Acknowledgments

This report was made possible by the generous support of the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD)

 

MAAP #214: Agriculture in the Amazon: New data reveals key patterns of crops & cattle pasture

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Figure 1. Agricultural and pasture data in a section of the Brazilian Amazon.

A burst of new data and online visualization tools are revealing key land use patterns across the Amazon, particularly regarding the critical topic of agriculture. This type of data is particularly important because agriculture is the leading cause of overall Amazonian deforestation.

These new datasets include:

  • Crops. The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), a leading agriculture and food systems research authority, recently launched the latest version of their innovative crop monitoring product, the Spatial Production Allocation Model (SPAM).1 This latest version, developed with support from WRI’s Land & Carbon Lab, features spatial data for 46 crops, including soybean, oil palm, coffee, and cocoa. This data is mapped at 10-kilometer resolution across the Amazon and updated through 2020.2
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  • Cattle pasture. The Atlas of Pastures,3 developed by the Federal University of Goiás, facilitates access to data regarding Brazilian cattle pastures generated by MapBiomas. This data is mapped at 30-kilometer resolution and updated through 2022. We use Collection 5 from Mapbiomas for the rest of the Amazonian countries.4
    j
  • Gold mining. New mining data is included for additional context. Amazon Mining Watch uses machine learning to map open-pit gold mining.5 This data is mapped at 10-kilometer resolution across the Amazon and updated through 2023.

We merged and analyzed these new datasets to provide our first overall estimate of Amazonian land use, the most detailed effort to date across all nine countries of the biome. Figure 1 shows an example of this merged data in a section of the Brazilian Amazon.

Below, we present and illustrate the following major findings across the Amazon, and then zoom in on several regions across the Amazon to show the data in greater detail.

Major Findings

The Base Map illustrates several major findings detailed below.

Base Map. Overview of the merged datasets noted above for crops, pasture, and gold mining. Double-click to enlarge. Data: IFRI/SPAM, Lapig/UFG, Mapbiomas, AMW, ACA/MAAP.

1) Crops
We found that 40 crops in the SPAM dataset overlap with the Amazon, covering over 106 million hectares (13% of the Amazon biome).

Soybean covers over 67.5 million hectares, mostly in southern Brazil and Bolivia. Maize covers slightly more area (70 million hectares) but we consider this a secondary rotational crop with soy (thus, there is considerable overlap between these two crops).

Oil palm covers nearly 8 million hectares, concentrated in eastern Brazil, central Peru, northern Ecuador, and northern Colombia.

In the Andean Amazon zones of Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia, cocoa covers over 8 million hectares and the two types of coffee (Arabica and Robusta) cover 6.7 million hectares.

Other major crops across the Amazon include rice (13.8 million hectares), sorghum (10.9 million hectares), cassava (9.8 million hectares), sugarcane (9.6 million hectares), and wheat (5.8 million hectares).

2) Cattle Pasture
Cattle Pasture covers 76.3 million hectares (9% of the Amazon biome). The vast majority (92%) of the pasture is in Brazil, followed by Colombia and Bolivia.

3) Crops & Cattle Pasture
Overall, accounting for overlaps between the data, we estimate that crops and pasture combined cover 115.8 million hectares. This total is the equivalent of 19% of the Amazon biome.

In comparison, open-pit gold mining covered 1.9 million hectares (0.23% of the Amazon biome).

Zooms across the Amazon

Eastern Brazilian Amazon

Figure 2 shows the transition from the soy frontier to the cattle pasture frontier in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. Also note a mix of other crops, such as oil palm, sugarcane, and cassava, and some gold mining.

Figure 2. Eastern Brazilian Amazon. Data: IFRI/SPAM, Lapig/UFG, Mapbiomas, AMW, ACA/MAAP.

Andean Amazon (Peru and Ecuador)

Figure 3. Andean Amazon. Data: IFRI/SPAM, Lapig/UFG, Mapbiomas, AMW, ACA/MAAP.

The land use patterns are quite different in the Andean Amazon regions of Peru and Ecuador.

Figure 3 shows, that instead of soy and cattle pasture, there is instead oil palm, rice, coffee, and cocoa.

Also note the extension of the cattle pasture frontier in the western Brazilian Amazon, towards Peru and Bolivia.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Northeast Amazon (Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana)

Figure 4 shows the general lack of crops in the core Amazon regions Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana, which is surely a major factor they are all considered High Forest cover, Low Deforestation countries (HFLD). In contrast, note there is abundant gold mining activity throughout this region.

Figure 4. Northeastern Amazon. Data: IFRI/SPAM, Lapig/UFG, Mapbiomas, AMW, ACA/MAAP.

Methods

For the SPAM data, we used the physical area, which is measured in a hectare and represents the actual area where a crop is grown (not counting how often production was harvested from it). We only considered values ​​greater than or equal to 100 ha per pixel.

For the Base Map, due to their importance as primary economic crops, we layered soybean and oil palm as the top two layers, respectively. From there, crops were layered in order of their total physical area across the Amazon. Thus, the full extensions of some crops are not shown if they overlap pixels with other crops that have greater physical area. For overlaps with crops and pasture, we favored the crops.

Notes & Data Sources

1 International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), 2024, “Global Spatially-Disaggregated Crop Production Statistics Data for 2020 Version 1.0” https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/SWPENT, Harvard Dataverse, V1

Spatial Production Allocation Model (SPAM)
SPAM 2020 v1.0 Global data (Updated 2024-04-16)

2 Note that the spatial resolution is rather low (10-kilometers) so all crop coverage data above should be interpreted as referential only.

3 The Atlas of Pastures (Atlas das Pastagens), open to the public, was developed by the Image Processing and Geoprocessing Laboratory of the Federal University of Goiás (Lapig/UFG), to facilitate access to results and products generated within the MapBiomas initiative, regarding Brazilian pastures.

https://atlasdaspastagens.ufg.br/

4 MapBiomas Collection 5;  https://amazonia.mapbiomas.org/en/

5 See MAAP #212 for more information on Amazon Mining Watch.

Citation

Finer M, Ariñez A (2024) Agriculture in the Amazon: New data reveals key patterns of crops & cattle pasture. MAAP: 214.

MAAP #213: Estimating Carbon in Amazon Protected Areas & Indigenous Territories

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Intro Image. Screenshot of OBI-WAN forest carbon reporting app.

In a recent report (MAAP #199), we presented the updated version of NASA’s GEDI data,1 which uses lasers aboard the International Space Station to provide cutting-edge estimates of aboveground carbon globally, including our focal area, the Amazon.

These lasers, however, have not yet achieved full coverage, leaving considerable gaps in the data and resulting maps.

Here, we feature two new tools that allow us to fill in these gaps and provide detailed wall-to-wall estimates of aboveground biomass for specific areas, which can then be converted to aboveground carbon estimates.

The first is the OBI-WAN forest carbon reporting app (see Intro Image), which uses statistical inference to produce mean, total, and uncertainty estimates for biomass baselines at any given scale (from local to worldwide).2

The second is a fused product from GEDI and TanDEM-X missions.3 The combination of lidar (GEDI) and radar (TanDEM-X) has started to produce unmatched maps that combine the ability of lidar to retrieve forest structure and the ability of radar to offer wall-to-wall coverage at multiple resolutions (see Figures 1-5 below for examples at 25m resolution).

Employing these two tools, we focus on estimating aboveground carbon for select examples of two critical land designations in the Amazon: protected areas and indigenous territories. Both are critical to the long-term conservation of the core Amazon (MAAP #183). We hope that providing precise carbon data will provide additional incentives for their long-term conservation.

We select 5 focal areas (3 National Parks and 2 Indigenous Territories; see list below) across the Amazon to demonstrate the power of these datasets. Together, these five areas are currently home to over 1.4 billion metric tons of aboveground carbon.

  • Protected Areas (National Parks)
    Chirbiquete National Park (Colombian Amazon)
    Manu National Park (Peruvian Amazon)
    Madidi National Park (Bolivian Amazon)
    k
  • Indigenous Territories
    Kayapó Indigenous Territory (Brazilian Amazon)
    Barranco Chico Indigenous Territory (Peruvian Amazon)

Focal Areas

As noted above, the aboveground carbon estimates below are based on the aboveground biomass estimates from the OBI-WAN forest carbon reporting app and GEDI-TanDEM-X data. Figures 1 – 5 are based on GEDI-TanDEM-X, at 25 meter resolution.

National Parks

Chirbiquete National Park (Colombian Amazon)

Chirbiquete National Park covers over 4.2 million hectares in the heart of the Colombian Amazon (Guaviare and Caqueta departments). Both datasets converge in the estimate of around 600 metric tons of aboveground biomass, equating to over 300 million metric tons of aboveground carbon across the park (80.5 tons of carbon per hectare). Figure 1 shows the detailed spatial distribution of this biomass across Chirbiquete National Park. Note that the GEDI-TanDEM-X data misses the western tip of the park.

Figure 1. Aboveground biomass across Chiribiquete National Park (Colombian Amazon). Data: GEDI-TanDEM-X

 

Manu National Park (Peruvian Amazon)

Figure 2. Aboveground biomass across Manu National Park (Peruvian Amazon). Data: GEDI-TanDEM-X

Manu National Park covers over 1.7 million hectares in the southern Peruvian Amazon (Madre de Dios and Cusco regions).

Both datasets converge in the estimate of over 450 metric tons of aboveground biomass, equating to over 215 million metric tons of aboveground carbon across the territory (126.8 tons of carbon per hectare).

Figure 2 shows the detailed spatial distribution of this biomass across Manu National Park.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Madidi National Park (Bolivian Amazon)

Figure 3. Aboveground biomass across Madidi National Park (Bolivian Amazon). Data: GEDI-TanDEM-X

Madidi National Park and Integrated Management Area covers over 1.8 million hectares in the western Bolivian Amazon (La Paz department).

Both datasets converge in the estimate of over 350 metric tons of aboveground biomass, equating to over 160 million metric tons of aboveground carbon across the park (85.3 tons of carbon per hectare).

Figure 3 shows the detailed spatial distribution of this biomass across Madidi National Park. Note that the GEDI-TanDEM-X data misses the southern tip of the park.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Indigenous Territories

Kayapó Indigenous Territory (Brazilian Amazon)

Kayapó Indigenous Territory covers over 3.2 million hectares in the eastern Brazilian Amazon (Pará state). Both datasets converge in the estimate of over 413,000 metric tons of aboveground biomass, equating to over 198 million metric tons of aboveground carbon across the territory. Figure 4 shows the detailed spatial distribution of this biomass across Kayapó and four neighboring Indigenous Territories. Totaling across these five territories (10.4 million hectares), the data sets converge on over 1.5 billion metric tons of aboveground biomass, and 730 million metric tons of aboveground carbon (70 tons per hectare).

Figure 4. Aboveground biomass across Kayapó and neighboring Indigenous Territories (Brazilian Amazon). Data: GEDI-TanDEM-X

Barranco Chico Indigenous Territory (Peruvian Amazon)

Barranco Chico Indigenous Territory covers over 12,600 hectares in the southern Peruvian Amazon (Madre de Dios region). Both datasets converge in the estimate of over 2 million metric tons of aboveground biomass, equating to over 1 million metric tons of aboveground carbon. Figure 5 shows the detailed spatial distribution of this biomass across Barranco Chico and two neighboring Indigenous Territories (Puerto Luz and San Jose de Karene). Totaling across these three territories (nearly 90,000 hectares), the data sets converge on over 19 million metric tons of aboveground biomass, and over 9 million metric tons of aboveground carbon (102 tons per hectare).

Figure 5. Aboveground biomass across Barranco Chico and neighboring Indigenous Territories (Peruvian Amazon). Data: GEDI-TanDEM-X

Notes

1 GEDI L4B Gridded Aboveground Biomass Density, Version 2.1. This data is measured in megagrams of aboveground biomass per hectare (Mg/ha) at a 1-kilometer resolution, with the period of April 2019 – March 2023. This serves as our estimate for aboveground carbon reserves, with the science-based assumption that 48% of recorded biomass is carbon.

2 The approach relies on the foundational paper from Patterson et al., (2019) and it is used by the GEDI mission to estimate mean and total biomass worldwide (Dubayh et al., 2022, Armston et al., 2023). The method considers the spatial distribution of GEDI tracks within a given user-specify boundary to infer the sampling error component of the total uncertainty that also includes the error from the GEDI L4A models used to predict biomass from canopy height estimates (Keller et al., 2022). For more information on the OBI-WAN app, see Healey and Yang 2022.

3 GEDI-TanDEM-X (GTDX) is a fusion of GEDI Version 2 and TanDEM-X (TDX) Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) images (from Jan 2011 to December 2020). It also incorporates annual forest loss data to account for deforestation during this time. The GTDX aboveground biomass maps were produced based on a generalized hierarchical model-based (GHMB) framework that utilizes GEDI biomass as training data to establish models for estimating biomass based on the GTDX canopy height. The combination of lidar (GEDI) and radar (TanDEM-X) has started to produce unmatched maps that combine the ability of lidar to retrieve forest structure and the ability of radar to offer wall-to-wall coverage (Qi et al.,2023, Dubayah et a;., 2023). This fused product is a wall-to-wall gap-free map that was produced at multiple resolutions: 25m, 100m and 1ha. Ongoing processing over the Pantropic region will be made available over the next months but some geographies have been already mapped such as most of the Amazon Basin (Dubayah et al., 2023). The data we used is publicly available.

References

Armston, J., Dubayah, R. O., Healey, S. P., Yang, Z., Patterson, P. L., Saarela, S., Stahl, G., Duncanson, L., Kellner, J. R., Pascual, A., & Bruening, J. (2023). Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI)GEDI L4B Country-level Summaries of Aboveground Biomass [CSV]. 0 MB. https://doi.org/10.3334/ORNLDAAC/2321

Dubayah, R. O., Armston, J., Healey, S. P., Yang, Z., Patterson, P. L., Saarela, S., Stahl, G., Duncanson, L., Kellner, J. R., Bruening, J., & Pascual, A. (2023). Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI)GEDI L4B Gridded Aboveground Biomass Density, Version 2.1 [COG]. 0 MB. https://doi.org/10.3334/ORNLDAAC/2299

Dubayah, R., Armston, J., Healey, S. P., Bruening, J. M., Patterson, P. L., Kellner, J. R., Duncanson, L., Saarela, S., Ståhl, G., Yang, Z., Tang, H., Blair, J. B., Fatoyinbo, L., Goetz, S., Hancock, S., Hansen, M., Hofton, M., Hurtt, G., & Luthcke, S. (2022). GEDI launches a new era of biomass inference from space. Environmental Research Letters, 17(9), 095001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac8694

Dubayah, R., Blair, J. B., Goetz, S., Fatoyinbo, L., Hansen, M., Healey, S., Hofton, M., Hurtt, G., Kellner, J., Luthcke, S., Armston, J., Tang, H., Duncanson, L., Hancock, S., Jantz, P., Marselis, S., Patterson, P. L., Qi, W., & Silva, C. (2020). The Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation: High-resolution laser ranging of the Earth’s forests and topography. Science of Remote Sensing, 1, 100002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.srs.2020.100002

Healey S, Yang Z (2022) The OBIWAN App: Estimating Property-Level Carbon Storage Using NASA’s GEDI Lidar. https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/rmrs/understory/obiwan-app-estimating-property-level-carbon-storage-using-nasas-gedi-lidar

Kellner, J. R., Armston, J., & Duncanson, L. (2022). Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document for GEDI Footprint Aboveground Biomass Density. Earth and Space Science, 10(4), e2022EA002516. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022EA002516

Dubayah, R.O., W. Qi, J. Armston, T. Fatoyinbo, K. Papathanassiou, M. Pardini, A. Stovall, C. Choi, and V. Cazcarra-Bes. 2023. Pantropical Forest Height and Biomass from GEDI and TanDEM-X Data Fusion. ORNL DAAC, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA. https://doi.org/10.3334/ORNLDAAC/2298

Qi, W., J. Armston, C. Choi, A. Stovall, S. Saarela, M. Pardini, L. Fatoyinbo, K. Papathanasiou, and R. Dubayah. 2023. Mapping large-scale pantropical forest canopy height by integrating GEDI lidar and TanDEM-X InSAR data. Research Square. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3306982/v1

Krieger, G., M. Zink, M. Bachmann, B. Bräutigam, D. Schulze, M. Martone, P. Rizzoli, U. Steinbrecher, J. Walter Antony, F. De Zan, I. Hajnsek, K. Papathanassiou, F. Kugler, M. Rodriguez Cassola, M. Younis, S. Baumgartner, P. López-Dekker, P. Prats, and A. Moreira. 2013. TanDEM-X: A radar interferometer with two formation-flying satellites. Acta Astronautica 89:83–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.03.008

Acknowledgments

We greatly thank the University of Maryland’s GEDI team for data access and reviewing this report. In particular, we thank Ralph Dubayah, Matheus Nunes, and Sean Healey.

This report was made possible by the generous support of the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD)

Citation

Mamani N, Pascual A, Finer M (2024) Estimating Carbon in Amazon Protected Areas & Indigenous Territories. MAAP: 213

MAAP #212: Machine learning to detect mining deforestation across the Amazon

Posted on by dcadmin
Amazon Mining Watch. Screen shot of the interactive mining deforestation map, displaying data for 2023.

Gold Mining is one of the major deforestation drivers across the Amazon.*

It often targets remote areas, thus impacting carbon-rich primary forests. Moreover, in most cases, this mining is illegal, given that it is occurring in protected areas and indigenous territories.

Given the vastness of the Amazon, however, it has been a challenge to accurately monitor mining deforestation across the entire biome in a timely manner.

Here we present, for the first time, the results of a new machine learning based tool (known as Amazon Mining Watch)  that analyzes satellite imagery archives to detect mining deforestation across the entire Amazon.

Specifically, the tool produces 10-meter resolution mining deforestation alerts based on the European Space Agency’s Sentinel-2 satellite imagery. The alerts currently cover each year annually from 2018 to 2023.

This data reveals that gold mining is actively causing deforestation in all nine countries of the Amazon Biome (see Base Map below). The countries with the most overall mining deforestation are 1) Brazil, 2) Guyana, 3) Suriname, 4) Venezuela, and 5) Peru.

*Note that in this report we focus on mining activity that is causing deforestation. Additional critical gold mining areas in rivers (such as in northern Peru, southeast Colombia, and northwest Brazil; see MAAP #197), are not included in this report or detected/displayed in Amazon Mining Watch.

Major Findings

The Base Map below presents the mining deforestation data across the entire Amazon. Note that yellow indicates the historical mining footprint as of 2018, while red indicates the more recent mining deforestation between 2019 and 2023.

Although the alerts are pixels and not designed for precise area measurements, they can be used to give general estimates. For example, we estimate that as of 2018, there was a historical mining deforestation footprint of over 963,000 hectares across the entire Amazon. Between 2019 and 2023, we estimate that the mining deforestation footprint grew by over 944,000 hectares (2.3 million acres).

Thus, of the total accumulated mining deforestation footprint of over 1.9 million hectares (4.7 million acres), about half has occurred in just the past five years (see Annex).

In addition, we estimate that 38% (725,498 hectares) of the total mining deforestation occurred within protected areas and Indigenous territories.

Graph 1 shows, of the total accumulated mining, over half has occurred in Brazil (55%, covering over 1 million hectares), followed by Guyana (15%), Suriname (12%), Venezuela (7%), and Peru (7%, covering 135,625 hectares).

Base Map. Mining deforestation across the Amazon, based on data from Amazon Mining Watch, for the years 2018-2023. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.
Graph 1. Mining deforestation across the Amazon, by country. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

Case Studies

In this section, we show a number of case studies highlighting the power of this data to see the evolution of mining deforestation in the following critical areas (see Insets A-E on Base Map). In these examples, note that yellow indicates the historical mining footprint as of 2018, purple indicates the expansion from 2019-2021, and red indicates the more recent mining deforestation between 2022 and 2023.

A. Southern Peruvian Amazon
B. Brazilian Amazon – Yanomami Indigenous Territory
C. Brazilian Amazon – Kayapó Indigenous Territory
D. Venezuelan Amazon – Yapacana National Park
E. Ecuadorian Amazon – Punino zone

A. Southern Peruvian Amazon

In southern Peru is one of the largest, and likely most emblematic, mining sites in the Amazon (see Inset A in Base Map). Figure 1 shows the dynamic evolution in this area, from several large core mining zones as of 2018, with more recent concentration in the designated Mining Corridor (large area where small-scale mining is permitted by the government as part of a formalization process).

Overall, we recorded over 135,000 hectares (333,590 acres) of mining deforestation in this area. Of this total, 62% (84,000 ha) was present as of 2018, while 38% (51,000 ha) has occurred in just the past five years (2019-2023).

We also highlight that of the total mining deforestation (135,000 ha), 59% has occurred within the Mining Corridor, while 41% (55,000 hectares) is outside the corridor and likely illegal. Note how mining deforestation threatens several protected areas, especially Tambopata National Reserve and Amarakaeri Communal Reserve.

See MAAP #208 for more information about mining deforestation at this site, and how illegal mining also threatens Native Communities.

Figure 1. Evolution of mining deforestation in the southern Peruvian Amazon. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

B. Brazilian Amazon – Yanomami Indigenous Territory

In the northern Brazilian Amazon, the national government recently launched a series of raids against illegal gold mining in Yanomami Indigenous Territory (see Inset B in Base Map). Figure 2 shows a major escalation and expansion of gold mining deforestation since 2018, especially along the Uraricoera and Mucajai Rivers.

Specifically, we documented the total mining deforestation of over 19,000 hectares (47,000 acres) in Yanomami Indigenous Territory. It is critical to emphasize that the vast majority (93%) has occurred in just the past five years (2019-2023).

See MAAP #181 for more information about mining deforestation at this site.

Figure 2. Evolution of mining deforestation in Yanomami Indigenous Territory in Brazil. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

C. Brazilian Amazon – Kayapó Indigenous Territory

In the eastern Brazilian Amazon, the Kayapó Indigenous Territory is also facing ongoing illegal mining (see Inset C in Base Map). Figure 3 shows the continuing expansion of mining deforestation, mostly in the eastern section of the territory.

We documented the total mining deforestation of nearly 50,000 hectares (123,550 acres) in Kayapó Indigenous Territory. Of this total, 60% (30,000 has) has occurred in just the past five years (2019-2023).

See MAAP #116 for more information about mining deforestation at this site, along with nearby Munduruku Indigenous Territory.

Figure 3. Evolution of mining deforestation in Kayapo Indigenous Territory in Brazil. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

D. Venezuelan Amazon – Yapacana National Park

In Venezuela, we see the continued expansion of mining deforestation in Yapacana National Park (see Inset D in Base Map). Indeed, Figure 4 shows the steady expansion of gold mining deforestation at several sites in the southern section of the protected area.

We documented the total mining deforestation of over 6,000 hectares (14,800 acres) in Yapacana National Park. Of this total, just over half (52%; 3,000 has) has occurred in just the past five years (2019-2023).

See MAAP #173 and MAAP #207 for more information about mining deforestation at this site.

Figure 4. Evolution of mining deforestation in Yapacana National Park in Venezuela. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

E. Ecuadorian Amazon – Punino River

In a series of reports, we have been showing the rapid increase in mining deforestation in the Ecuadorian Amazon (see MAAP #182). One of the main sites is around the Punino River in northern Ecuador (see Inset E in Base Map). Figure 5 shows the sudden emergence of gold mining deforestation near the river.

We documented the total mining deforestation of over 500 hectares (1,235 acres) in the Punino River area. Of this total, 100% is new, all starting in 2023.

See MAAP #206 for more information about mining deforestation at this site.

Figure 5. Evolution of mining deforestation in along the Punino River in Ecuador. Data: AMW, ACA/MAAP.

Annex

As noted above, of the total accumulated mining deforestation footprint of over 1.9 million hectares (4.7 million acres), about half has occurred in just the past five years.

Methods

All data for this report were obtained from Amazon Mining Watch. We only utilized patches with greater than 0.6 mean score. We used the 2018 data as our baseline. For 2019, we masked the previously reported 2018 data to only highlight the new mining that year. We then repeated this process for each subsequent year. For example, the 2023 data masked the 2018-2022 data, indicating only new mining deforestation that year.

Citation

Finer M, Ariñez A (2024) Machine learning to detect mining deforestation across the Amazon. MAAP: #212.